Long noncoding RNAS and cell reprogramming and differentiation

ABSTRACT

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are identified that enhance pluripotency reprogramming of somatic cells as well as differentiation of pluripotent cells. Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell generation from somatic cells leads to the upregulation and downregulation of identified lncRNAs. The modulation of these lncRNAs are capable of enhancing pluripotency of somatic cells as well as enhancing differentiation of a pluripotent cell.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

The present application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/840,306 filed on Jun. 27, 2013, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under HG006998 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.”

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted electronically in ASCII format and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Nov. 17, 2014, is named 75207-C766_SL.txt and is 19,013,879 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND

The most well-known type of pluripotent stem cell is the embryonic stem (ES) cell. However, the generation of embryonic stem cells can only be derived from embryos, and it has so far not been feasible to create patient-matched embryonic stem cell lines. Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells are a type of pluripotent stem cell that can be generated directly from somatic (differentiated) cells. Since iPS cells can be derived directly from adult tissues, they not only bypass the need for embryos, but can be made in a patient-matched manner, which means that each individual could have their own pluripotent stem cell line. iPS cells may be generated through the ectopic expression of Oct 4, Sox2, Lkf4, and c-Myc (OSKM) transcription factors in somatic cells (Takahashi and Yamanaka, 2006), leading to global epigenetic changes during reprogramming (Papp and Plath, 2013). Chromatin regulatory proteins mediate epigenetic remodeling during iPS cell formation, and loss-of-function studies have shown that Polycomb proteins are potent regulators of cell fate reprogramming (Onder et al., 2012). However, iPS cells may retain epigenetic signatures of their somatic cell of origin (Kim et al., 2010; Polo et al., 2010) that can persist through extended passaging (Kim et al., 2011), and the molecular mechanisms responsible for epigenetic memory are unclear.

In ES cells, long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) associate with chromatin regulators such as Polycomb proteins (Guttman et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2008) and are required to repress lineage-specific genes in the pluripotent state (Guttman et al., 2011). LncRNAs have been shown to target chromatin regulatory complexes throughout the genome in various developmental settings (Lee and Bartolomei, 2013; Rinn and Chang, 2012), but relatively little is known about lncRNAs in the context of cellular reprogramming.

SUMMARY

Some embodiments of the present invention are directed to a method of enhancing reprogramming of a somatic cell to a pluripotent cell in a human or mouse, the method including upregulation of at least one long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) selected from SEQ ID NOs. 1-347 and 368-408 and isoforms, fragments, and homologs thereof in the somatic cell.

In some embodiments, the method of enhancing reprogramming of a somatic cell also includes downregulating at least one lncRNA selected from SEQ ID NOs. 348-367 and 415-424 and SEQ ID NOs. 408-414 and isoforms, fragments, and homologs thereof.

Some embodiments of the present invention are directed to a method of enhancing differentiation of a pluripotent cell in a human or mouse, the method including downregulation of at least one long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) selected from SEQ ID NOs. 1-347 and 368-407 and isoforms, fragments and homologs thereof in the pluripotent cell.

In some embodiments, the method of enhancing differentiation of a pluripotent cell also includes upregulating at least one lncRNA selected from SEQ ID NOs. 348-367 and 415-424 and SEQ ID NOs. 408-414 and isoforms, fragments, and homologs thereof.

Some embodiments of the present invention include a composition for enhancing pluripotency reprogramming in a human or mouse somatic cell, the composition includes an inhibiting nucleic acid directed against a long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) selected from SEQ ID NOs. 358-367 and SEQ ID NOs. 408-414 and isoforms, fragments, and homologs thereof.

Some embodiments of the present invention include a composition for enhancing pluripotency reprogramming in a human or mouse somatic cell, the composition includes a vector, synthetic nucleic acid or in vitro transcribed nucleic acid encoding a long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) selected from SEQ ID NOs. 1-347 and 368-407 and isoforms, fragments, and homologs thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a schematic showing induction of pluripotency in somatic cells, according to embodiments of the invention.

FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C show induced pluripotent stem cells as described herein, according to embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 3 is a schematic showing induction of pluripotency in tail-tip fibroblasts, according to embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 4A shows activated genes in tail tip fibroblasts as described herein, according to embodiments of the invention. FIG. 4B lists 100 induced proteins as described herein. FIGS. 4C-4D show a timeline of induced pluripotency as described herein, according to embodiments of the invention.

FIGS. 5A, 5B, and 5C each show a forward scatter plot of iPS cells at week 3 (FIG. 5A), week 6 (FIG. 5B), and week 9 (FIG. 5C), according to embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 6 is a self-organizing map to identify dynamic changes in the single-cell transcriptomes of reprogramming cells to facilitate visualization of gene sets that are coordinately expressed during the reprogramming timecourse, according to embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 7A is an analysis of tail tip fibroblasts (TTFs) that strongly express genes involved in body axis anatomy and development of muscle, as described herein. Intermediate reprogramming cells at week 2 (Wk2) expressed numerous genes that are required for proper germ cell development and fertility, including Blimp1. By week 3 (Wk3) of reprogramming, individual cells began to express genes that are involved in RNA metabolism and noncoding RNA processing Late-stage iPS cells at week 6 (Wk6) strongly expressed hundreds of pseudogenes which can be processed into small regulatory RNAs in oocytes. Late-stage iPS cells at week 8 (Wk8) expressed known pluripotency factors at high levels, including Oct4, Nanog, Esrrb, and Sall4, but did not exhibit full activation of germ cell regulatory genes such as Stella and Prdm14, which are highly expressed in ES cells, according to embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 7B is a table summarizing the tail tip fibroblast (TTFs) analysis of FIG. 7A, as described herein, in which GO (gene ontology) the annotated genes as well as the Cluster frequency, Genome frequency, Corrected P-value, FDR, and False positive values are shown as indicated.

FIG. 8 shows the expression pattern of germ cell-related genes determined by log 2(RPKM+1) (RPKM=reads per kilobase per million) using small molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization (smFISH) showing that Stella and Prdm14 appear to be heterogeneously expressed during the reprogramming timecourse, as described herein.

FIG. 9 is a fluorescence image of a single cell at week 6 (wk6) of iPS cell reprogramming using 4-color smFISH to characterize the full distribution of Stella, Prdm14, Blimp1, Rex1, Oct4, and Sox2 RNAs in hundreds of late-stage iPS cells (n=303), as described herein.

FIGS. 10A-10D show a histogram (FIG. 10A) and box plots (FIGS. 10B, 10C, 10D) of RNA molecules per cell for each indicated gene, as determined by 4-color smFISH showing that cells expressing higher levels of Rex1, also expressed Stella, Prdm14, and Blimp1, while cells with low Rex1 expression generally did not express these genes, as described herein.

FIG. 11A shows the expression pattern of germ cell-related genes using small molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization (smFISH) showing that late-stage iPS cells began to express Piwi12 which associates with Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), as described herein.

FIG. 11B is a graph showing that at the population level, iPS cells expressed genes involved in piRNA function and biogenesis, as described herein.

FIG. 11C is a graph showing that the 2′-O-methylated small RNAs that were cloned and sequenced from iPS cells exhibited a characteristic size distribution peak of 26 nucleotides (nt), as described herein.

FIG. 11D is a graph showing that of the 2′-O-methylated small RNAs sequenced in FIG. 11C, 40% had a 5′U, indicative of primary piRNAs in the germline, as described herein.

FIG. 11E is a graph showing that 40% of the 2′-O-methylated small RNAs of FIG. 11C mapped to retrotransposons, as described herein.

FIG. 12 shows long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) that are activated during reprogramming (Ladr), according to embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 13A is a fluorescent image of a single cell at week 6 (Wk6) of iPS cell reprogramming using smFISH, with Ladr37 probe, as described herein.

FIGS. 13B and 13C are graphs of cumulative frequency of Ladr37 lncRNAs at week 6 (Wk6) (FIG. 13B) and week 9 (Wk9) (FIG. 13C) compared with ESC (embryonic stem cells), as described herein.

FIG. 14A is a fluorescent image of a single cell at week 6 (Wk6) of iPS cell reprogramming using smFISH, with Ladr80 probe, as described herein.

FIGS. 14B and 14C are graphs of cumulative frequency of Ladr80 lncRNAs at week 6 (Wk6) (FIG. 14B) and week 9 (Wk9) (FIG. 14C) compared with ESC (embryonic stem cells), as described herein.

FIG. 15A shows graphs measuring relative expression of Ladr80, Ladr37, and Ladr246 compared to controls, in late stage iPS cells in the presence or absence (control) of Ladr80 siRNA, Ladr37 siRNA, or Ladr246 siRNA, as indicated, as described herein.

FIG. 15B shows graphs measuring fold change of reprogramming efficiencies in the presence or absence (control) of Ladr37 siRNA or Ladr80 siRNA, as indicated, as described herein.

FIG. 16A shows differential expression analysis of significantly upregulated or downregulated genes in iPS cells in the presence (siLadr80) or absence (control) of Ladr80 siRNA, as determined by population level RNA-seq, and gene ontology (GO) analysis for significantly enriched GO terms in upregulated genes, as described herein.

FIG. 16B shows the expression patterns of the indicated genes in the indicated cell types, as described herein.

FIG. 16C is a graph showing gene expression of the indicated muscle genes in week 9 (Wk9) iPS cells in the presence of Ladr37 siRNA, Ladr80 siRNA, or control, as indicated, as described herein.

FIG. 16D is a graph showing gene expression of the indicated reprogramming/pluripotency-related genes Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, C-Myc, Lin28, and Nanog in Wk9 iPS cells in the presence of Ladr37 siRNA, Ladr80 siRNA, or control, as described herein.

FIG. 16E shows a graph of differential expression analysis of significantly upregulated or downregulated lncRNA genes in ES cells versus TFF cells, as described herein.

FIG. 16F shows two graphs indicating the fraction of upregulated or downregulated lncRNAs that associated with Polycomb proteins in ES cells, as described herein.

FIG. 17A shows long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) that are activated during reprogramming (Ladr) in IPS cells, ES cells, and primordial germ cells (PGC), as determined by single-cell RNA-seq, as described herein.

FIG. 17B is a graph showing single-cell average expression levels of Stella in the indicated cell types, as determined by single-cell RNA-seq, as described herein.

FIG. 18A is graph comparing Ladr lncRNAs with lncRNAs in ES cells, as described herein.

FIG. 18B shows the expression patterns of the indicated lncRNAs in the indicated cell types, as described herein.

FIG. 18C shows the expression patterns of the indicated lncRNAs in the indicated cell types including relative Oct4 correlation as indicated, as described herein.

FIG. 19A shows a graph indicating the fraction of the Ladr lncRNAs (115) that associate with Polycomb proteins (Polycomb-bound) in ES cells, as described herein.

FIG. 19B is a graph showing the enrichment of elements (e.g., ERVK) in Ladr lncRNAs versus, as described herein.

FIG. 19C is a schematic showing that Ladr37 is flanked by two different ERVK elements whose sequences overlap with its 5′ and 3′ exons, as described herein.

FIG. 20A is a graph showing expression of AP2γ (in RPKM) in the indicated cell types, as described herein.

FIG. 20B shows graphs indicating the fraction of Oct4, Prdm14, or Ap2γ binding sites within lncRNA promoters out of the total number of Ladr lncRNAs, as described herein.

FIG. 20C shows ChIP sequence data for Ladr80 lncRNA, Ladr169 lncRNA, Ladr37 lncRNA, or Ladr43 lncRNA, as indicated, analyzed with respect to Oct 4, Sox2, Nanog, Prdm14 and AP2γ, as described herein.

FIG. 21A is a graph showing the amount of upregulated lncRNAs or downregulated lncRNAs, as indicated, in iPS cells derived from hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPC-iPS cells) compared to HPC cells, as described herein.

FIG. 21B is a graph showing the fraction of lncRNAs activated during HPC reprogramming, as described herein.

FIG. 21C shows long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) that are activated in HPC-iPS cells during reprogramming, according to embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 21D is a fluorescent image of a single cell at week 6 (Wk6) of iPS cell reprogramming using smFISH, with Ladr246 probe, as described herein.

FIG. 21E shows two graphs of cumulative frequency of Ladr246 lncRNAs at week 6 (Wk6) and week 9 (Wk9) compared with ESC (embryonic stem cells), as described herein.

FIG. 21F is a graph showing differential expression analysis of upregulated or downregulated genes, as indicated, in week 9 (Wk9) iPS cells in the presence (siLadr246) or absence (control) of Ladr246 siRNA, as described herein.

FIG. 22A is a graph showing differential expression analysis of upregulated or downregulated genes, as indicated, in week 9 (Wk 9) iPS cells in the presence (siLadr272) or absence (control) of Ladr272 siRNA, as described herein.

FIG. 22B is a graph showing differential expression analysis of upregulated or downregulated genes, as indicated, in week 9 (Wk 9) iPS cells in the presence (siLadr43) or absence (control) of Ladr43 siRNA, as described herein.

FIG. 23 is a graph showing differential expression analysis of upregulated or downregulated genes in human iPS cells compared to human fibroblasts, as described herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Some embodiments of the present invention include at least one long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) that regulates the induction of pluripotency in somatic cells. As disclosed herein, the lncRNAs in Tables 1 and 2 increase effective pluripotency of iPS cells. Some embodiments of the present invention include methods for improved induction of pluripotency in somatic cells. These methods for inducing pluripotency in somatic cells include the presence of (activation of) and/or absence (repression of) at least one of the long lncRNAs disclosed in Tables 1 and/or 2. Induction of pluripotency in tail-tip fibroblasts from an OSKM mouse to produce iPS cells for comparative expression analysis with embryonic stem (ES) cells is shown schematically in FIG. 1.

As used herein, “reprogramming” in the context of a somatic cell refers to the erasure and remodeling of the differentiated somatic cell to a pluripotent embryonic state, Conversely, “reprogramming” in the context of a pluripotent cell is also referred to as differentiation, and refers to the remodeling of the pluripotent cell to a more specialized differentiated cell.

As used herein, “induction of pluripotency” and “pluripotency reprogramming” refers to the induction of pluripotency by induction of Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, c-Myc (OSKM) transcription factors and/or the “dual inhibition” of Mek and Gsk3 also known as “2i.”

In some embodiments, methods for improved induction of pluripotency in somatic cells includes the presence of the lncRNAs disclosed herein to be activated during reprogramming of the somatic cells. These lncRNAs activated during reprogramming are also referred to herein as Ladrs. Induction of pluripotency activated mouse Ladrs 1-314 (SEQ ID NOs. 1-314) are listed in Table 1 and the orthologous human lncRNA (SEQ ID NOs. 315-347) identified by Liftover analysis, are listed in Table 2.

TABLE 1 SEQ ID NO: lncRNA Gene name chr left right Str* ID 1 Ladr 1 Gm17586 chr11 120495082 120496439 + ENSMUSG00000090998 2 Ladr 2 4930444M15Rik chr14 76914365 76920662 − ENSMUSG00000085974 3 Ladr 3 1810019D21Rik chr8 108659300 108662425 + ENSMUSG00000086390 4 Ladr 4 B230208H11Rik chr10 12636446 12642898 − ENSMUSG00000085233 5 Ladr 5 Gm15728 chr5 117839148 117843507 + ENSMUSG00000086075 6 Ladr 6 Gm2529 chr8 87189027 87193305 + ENSMUSG00000073822 7 Ladr 7 2700086A05Rik chr6 52125216 52165075 + ENSMUSG00000085696 8 Ladr 8 C430039J16Rik chr13 98053137 98055889 + ENSMUSG00000091451 9 Ladr 9 Gm17291 chr10 62755034 62758541 − ENSMUSG00000050249 10 Ladr 10 A330048O09Rik chr13 48367785 48369253 − ENSMUSG00000087671 11 Ladr 11 Gm17698 chr1 165231921 165233751 − ENSMUSG00000090335 12 Ladr 12 4930481B07Rik chr3 94819547 94824060 + ENSMUSG00000085956 13 Ladr 13 A730011C13Rik chr3 94798332 94801272 − ENSMUSG00000084846 14 Ladr 14 4930526L06Rik chr19 11271307 11374376 + ENSMUSG00000085490 15 Ladr 15 Gm15787 chr5 110583419 110605523 − ENSMUSG00000086247 16 Ladr 16 2310043M15Rik chr16 93792395 93795133 − ENSMUSG00000091302 17 Ladr 17 4930566F21Rik chr5 31789002 31797552 − ENSMUSG00000086967 18 Ladr 18 Meg3 chr12 110779211 110809936 + ENSMUSG00000021268 19 Ladr 19 3110056K07Rik chr12 72092602 72116819 − ENSMUSG00000085622 20 Ladr 20 Gm15441 chr3 96359688 95370724 − ENSMUSG00000074398 21 Ladr 21 Rian chr12 110842155 110899919 + ENSMUSG00000091793 22 Ladr 22 9830144P21Rik chr2 129031694 129056315 − ENSMUSG00000087528 23 Ladr 23 4930513N10Rik chr8 98330730 98345628 + ENSMUSG00000074136 24 Ladr 24 4930404I05Rik chr16 91011494 91016988 + ENSMUSG00000087354 25 Ladr 25 GM17250 chr2 71586132 71588219 − ENSMUSG00000090953 26 Ladr 26 Gm16641 chr11 50050511 50102341 + ENSMUSG00000085364 27 Ladr 27 2310010G23Rik chrX 34354766 34357180 − ENSMUSG00000090647 28 Ladr 28 2810442I21Rik chr11 16835157 16851285 − ENSMUSG00000087060 29 Ladr 29 9230114K14Rik chr5 52581920 52589223 + ENSMUSG00000087676 30 Ladr 30 Vax2os1 chr6 83642800 83662195 − ENSMUSG00000085794 31 Ladr 31 1700007L15Rik chr16 33379941 33380813 − ENSMUSG00000090918 32 Ladr 32 4632427E13Rik chr7 99886168 99889978 − ENSMUSG00000074024 33 Ladr 33 Gm17491 chr8 23590763 23593802 + ENSMUSG00000078859 34 Ladr 34 4930461G14Rik chr9 58302980 58317430 + ENSMUSG00000086516 35 Ladr 35 Gm16957 chr17 17526907 17532267 − ENSMUSG00000087696 36 Ladr 36 2410003L11Rik chr11 97459825 97484207 + ENSMUSG00000085860 37 Ladr 37 4930500J02Rik chr2 104399320 104411586 + ENSMUSG00000086454 38 Ladr 38 Gm17335 chr11 22500338 22510882 − ENSMUSG00000090797 39 Ladr 39 Gm13110 chr4 154019863 154029427 − ENSMUSG00000086810 40 Ladr 40 9530027109Rik chrX 45629969 45638603 − ENSMUSG00000085283 41 Ladr 41 2500002B13Rik chr8 59966851 59987674 + ENSMUSG00000086276 42 Ladr 42 4933404O12Rik chr5 137395016 137412982 + ENSMUSG00000085062 43 Ladr 43 Gm2694 chr8 89996711 90049453 + ENSMUSG00000087391 44 Ladr 44 A230072C01Rik chrX 20538810 20563863 + ENSMUSG00000086877 45 Ladr 45 C330046G13Rik chr10 84010162 84016083 − ENSMUSG00000085671 46 Ladr 46 Gm17300 chr4 131907687 131909297 + ENSMUSG00000091021 47 Ladr 47 Xist chrX 100655714 100678556 − ENSMUSG00000086503 48 Ladr 48 4930558J18Rik chr1 57416066 57434348 − ENSMUSG00000084958 49 Ladr 49 Gm10143 chr19 10272858 10276874 + ENSMUSG00000064032 50 Ladr 50 1110002J07Rik chr10 66375237 66383006 − ENSMUSG00000087275 51 Ladr 51 1700086O06Rik chr18 38398059 38410219 − ENSMUSG00000086988 52 Ladr 52 6720401G13Rik chrX 47908921 47988498 − ENSMUSG00000085396 53 Ladr 53 Gm17418 chr1 93885628 93889205 + ENSMUSG00000079420 54 Ladr 54 Gm16986 chr13 66604096 66620459 − ENSMUSG00000086120 55 Ladr 55 Gm17656 chr13 66450332 66466708 + ENSMUSG00000090969 56 Ladr 56 B230206L02Rik chr11 93994799 94017090 + ENSMUSG00000086003 57 Ladr 57 Abhd1 chr5 31252439 31257464 + ENSMUSG00000006638 58 Ladr 58 5930412G12Rik chr5 129084981 129106568 − ENSMUSG00000072591 59 Ladr 59 E130018N17Rik chr2 167978103 167980013 − ENSMUSG00000087648 60 Ladr 60 Gm14022 chr2 128886682 128891422 − ENSMUSG00000087151 61 Ladr 61 Gm2788 chr7 56133328 56141978 + ENSMUSG00000085995 62 Ladr 62 Gm16880 chr1 138592788 138622305 + ENSMUSG00000085011 63 Ladr 63 Gm4419 chr12 21423772 21425664 + ENSMUSG00000090621 64 Ladr 64 9330185C12Rik chr1 115787962 115860711 − ENSMUSG00000086520 65 Ladr 65 Gm17659 chr9 89989016 89990740 + ENSMUSG00000091035 66 Ladr 66 Gm17710 chr7 95427297 95432039 − ENSMUSG00000091953 67 Ladr 67 Gm10785 chr16 91689156 91715887 + ENSMUSG00000085169 68 Ladr 68 Gm17561 chr17 32506250 32515390 + ENSMUSG00000091872 69 Ladr 69 4930509G22Rik chr16 11178269 11192385 + ENSMUSG00000085780 70 Ladr 70 C430002E04Rik chr3 41292726 41297114 − ENSMUSG00000091878 71 Ladr 71 Gm17605 chr8 4088149 4089166 − ENSMUSG00000091309 72 Ladr 72 Gm17362 chr8 23755333 23756758 + ENSMUSG00000074911 73 Ladr 73 Gm17525 chr4 128986325 128995687 + ENSMUSG00000091673 74 Ladr 74 Mirg chr12 110973191 110987665 + ENSMUSG00000091158 75 Ladr 75 1010001B22Rik chr5 110424530 110425417 − ENSMUSG00000091434 76 Ladr 76 Gm17597 chr15 81631221 81633043 − ENSMUSG00000091934 77 Ladr 77 Gm16283 chr18 49915448 49916843 + ENSMUSG00000087020 78 Ladr 78 4933407K13Rik chrX 72952271 73010038 − ENSMUSG00000087396 79 Ladr 79 Gm17279 chr8 19888055 20016359 + ENSMUSG00000091588 80 Ladr 80 Gm16096 chr9 40588825 40592264 − ENSMUSG00000087135 81 Ladr 81 Gm17440 chr7 30983649 30985908 + ENSMUSG00000092079 82 Ladr 82 Gm17594 chrX 78316033 78318441 − ENSMUSG00000078930 83 Ladr 83 Gm13657 chr2 75615245 75620363 + ENSMUSG00000086813 84 Ladr 84 C330018A13Rik chr5 116573623 116579119 + ENSMUSG00000086655 85 Ladr 85 Gm17637 chrX 20937991 20941748 − ENSMUSG00000091801 86 Ladr 86 Gm16827 chr18 31940880 31948699 − ENSMUSG00000086768 87 Ladr 87 Atp10d chr5 72594568 72690014 + ENSMUSG00000046808 88 Ladr 88 5730457N03Rik chr6 52258383 52264826 − ENSMUSG00000086126 89 Ladr 89 Gm11714 chr11 107289590 107297000 + ENSMUSG00000087113 90 Ladr 90 Gm16159 chr8 26659133 26666555 − ENSMUSG00000086134 91 Ladr 91 Gm12898 chr4 118895779 118897420 + ENSMUSG00000085626 92 Ladr 92 Gm16973 chr14 57315117 57320105 − ENSMUSG00000086985 93 Ladr 93 6030442K20Rik chr1 134363010 134373622 − ENSMUSG00000090678 94 Ladr 94 Gm13830 chr5 115751129 115769217 + ENSMUSG00000086368 95 Ladr 95 C330013F16Rik chrX 135774765 135892277 − ENSMUSG00000086807 96 Ladr 96 4930467K11Rik chr10 57198187 57206159 − ENSMUSG00000085621 97 Ladr 97 2010300F17Rik chr11 96574296 96608750 ENSMUSG00000091444 98 Ladr 98 Gm2464 chr3 13471906 13474596 − ENSMUSG00000078587 99 Ladr 99 9530080011Rik chr4 95626406 95634346 − ENSMUSG00000044125 100 Ladr 100 5C046401 chr2 165683184 165684534 + ENSMUSG00000085274 101 Ladr 101 Gm17481 chr15 78693386 78697319 − ENSMUSG00000086640 102 Ladr 102 Gm14817 chrX 71040554 71042955 − ENSMUSG00000085669 103 Ladr 103 Gn717501 chr3 145313276 145315057 + ENSMUSG00000090771 104 Ladr 104 Gm17502 chr7 6296993 6300606 + ENSMUSG00000091822 105 Ladr 105 1700023H05Rik chr13 81023485 81024785 − ENSMUSG00000089827 106 Ladr 106 4930480K23Rik chr14 70132591 70166920 + ENSMUSG00000085243 107 Ladr 107 1110020A21Rik chr17 85354307 85357050 − ENSMUSG00000087023 108 Ladr 108 Gm16723 chr6 87858837 87864453 − ENSMUSG000000857O3 109 Ladr 109 Gm16972 chr4 43058906 43066125 + ENSMUSG00000086983 110 Ladr 110 GM807 chr13 99870661 99877535 + ENSMUSG00000074744 111 Ladr 111 D030068K23Rik chr8 111599122 111797711 + ENSMUSG00000085859 112 Ladr 112 Gm8378 chr12 92913252 92924553 − ENSMUSG00000090722 113 Ladr 113 Gm12059 chr11 22967998 22975574 + ENSMUSG00000085665 114 Ladr 114 Gm17716 chr14 26175287 26198121 − ENSMUSG00000091164 115 Ladr 115 Gm16244 chr19 42853522 42855944 − ENSMUSG00000090235 116 Ladr 116 3110045C21Rik chr1 171899540 171902526 + ENSMUSG00000085494 117 Ladr 117 Gm16845 chr9 21875476 21890566 + ENSMUSG00000087161 118 Ladr 118 Gm10658 chr9 56904437 56919773 − ENSMUSG00000074284 119 Ladr 119 A930011O12Rik chr14 65206952 65212796 + ENSMUSG00000091456 120 Ladr 120 C030010L15Rik chr16 98215766 98218584 − ENSMUSG00000091751 121 Ladr 121 4833407H14Rik chr19 53535121 53537213 + ENSMUSG00000090800 122 Ladr 122 Nespas chr2 174106738 174120937 − ENSMUSG00000086537 123 Ladr 123 Gm10492 chr17 95234246 95235982 + ENSMUSG00000073366 124 Ladr 124 Gm17713 chr1 135506988 135510999 + ENSMUSG00000092104 125 Ladr 125 A930029G22Rik chr17 69766000 69788644 − ENSMUSG00000085144 126 Ladr 126 Gm16046 chr17 13812667 13820523 − ENSMUSG00000085705 127 Ladr 127 GM15522 chr5 34993367 34995126 + ENSMUSG00000085166 128 Ladr 128 Gm11818 chr4 12833984 12908632 + ENSMUSG00000055963 129 Ladr 129 1700016P03Rik chr11 74986062 74991135 + ENSMUSG00000085609 130 Ladr 130 Hoxa11as chr6 52195051 52199794 + ENSMUSG00000086427 131 Ladr 131 Gm17477 chr9 79966702 79969744 − ENSMUSG00000084917 132 Ladr 132 C030037DO9Rik chr11 88579959 88590207 + ENSMUSG00000087574 133 Ladr 133 A330040F15Rik chr19 12660358 12671056 − ENSMUSG00000086213 134 Ladr 134 Mir155 chr16 84713268 84715487 + ENSMUSG00000091875 135 Ladr 135 Gm4890 chr8 81819022 81831584 + ENSMUSG00000085259 136 Ladr 136 1700028E1ORik chr5 152171284 152216658 + ENSMUSG00000087548 137 Ladr 137 Gm10575 chr7 148647380 148653670 − ENSMUSG00000073787 138 Ladr 138 Gm15545 chr7 52242270 52249967 + ENSMUSG00000087138 139 Ladr 139 A030009H04Rik chr11 69153963 69156143 + ENSMUSG00000043419 140 Ladr 140 0610005C13Rik chr7 52823165 52830697 − ENSMUSG00000085214 141 Ladr 141 Gm17344 chr8 112385625 112392355 − ENSMUSG00000078143 142 Ladr 142 Gm16761 chr16 29907605 29946603 − ENSMUSG00000084810 143 Ladr 143 Gm11538 chr11 96064768 96066699 + ENSMUSG00000085983 144 Ladr 144 A230056P14Rik chr7 63217901 63236238 + ENSMUSG00000087178 145 Ladr 145 Gm16685 chr3 7612705 7690001 + ENSMUSG00000086143 146 Ladr 146 Gm17690 chr3 95971387 95976337 − ENSMUSG00000091244 147 Ladr 147 4933431E20Rik chr3 107691768 107699131 − ENSMUSG00000086968 148 Ladr 148 Gm17565 chr4 145686275 145688945 + ENSMUSG00000090554 149 Ladr 149 1700030C12Rik chr11 23397753 23399661 + ENSMUSG00000086459 150 Ladr 150 2410133F24Rik chr9 56947757 56979097 − ENSMUSG00000086728 151 Ladr 151 C530005A16Rik chr4 116262338 116270235 − ENSMUSG00000085408 152 Ladr 152 Gm17254 chr9 96968602 96973848 + ENSMUSG00000091219 153 Ladr 153 Gm17701 chr6 127058407 127060485 + ENSMUSG00000091856 154 Ladr 154 Gm15489 chr7 129282522 129302915 − ENSMUSG00000086942 155 Ladr 155 9530059O14Rik chr9 122481615 122588714 + ENSMUSG00000086476 156 Ladr 156 Gm17102 chr7 48649068 48652817 + ENSMUSG00000091864 157 Ladr 157 Dio3os chr12 111513594 111516278 − ENSMUSG00000090962 158 Ladr 158 Snord123 chr15 32170324 32174417 − ENSMUSG00000090401 159 Ladr 159 1700023L04Rik chr6 29935329 29943776 + ENSMUSG00000045709 160 Ladr 160 Gdap10 chr12 33506737 33511769 + ENSMUSG00000059937 161 Ladr 161 Gm17500 chr11 51938032 51941281 − ENSMUSG00000092028 162 Ladr 162 Gm17692 chr17 6314199 6492328 + ENSMUSG00000091795 163 Ladr 163 Gm12784 chr7 35332225 35341223 + ENSMUSG00000086631 164 Ladr 164 2810011L19Rik chr12 106574804 106622141 + ENSMUSG00000086023 165 Ladr 165 Gm16618 chr16 20511206 20517839 − ENSMUSG00000086837 166 Ladr 165 Gm16912 chr17 29598841 29628870 − ENSMUSG00000087551 167 Ladr 167 Gm12592 chr11 3205429 3231181 − ENSMUSG00000053263 168 Ladr 168 Gm13261 chr2 10260910 10295668 − ENSMUSG00000086748 169 Ladr 169 C330002G04Rik chr19 23111880 23150343 − ENSMUSG00000087169 170 Ladr 170 Gm16869 chr9 3000282 3038313 − ENSMUSG00000087580 171 Ladr 171 Gn16938 chr7 105325704 105334107 + ENSMUSG00000086325 172 Ladr 172 F630040L22Rik chr9 108007296 108020674 + ENSMUSG00000087645 173 Ladr 173 Gm17445 chr7 26601673 26605673 + ENSMUSG00000084812 174 Ladr 174 AY512931 chr8 46146056 46150772 − ENSMUSG00000066158 175 Ladr 175 Gm6410 chr8 4678462 4688494 + ENSMUSG00000090435 176 Ladr 176 A930007I19Rik chr19 29560845 29597649 − ENSMUSG00000086309 177 Ladr 177 3010001F23Rik chrX 148803116 148851241 + ENSMUSG00000084885 178 Ladr 178 A330076H08Rik chr7 69075799 69127242 − ENSMUSG00000087490 179 Ladr 179 Gm15850 chr1 138022755 138027760 − ENSMUSG00000086264 180 Ladr 180 Gm10425 chr12 112665085 112669157 − ENSMUSG00000072830 181 Ladr 181 Gm16629 chr15 92174790 92208519 + ENSMUSG00000085294 182 Ladr 182 2900052L18Rik chr11 120091116 120092899 − ENSMUSG00000043993 183 Ladr 183 2310031A07Rik chr11 46253864 46260750 − ENSMUSG00000091190 184 Ladr 184 4930506C21Rik chr17 8486231 8503945 − ENSMUSG00000087478 185 Ladr 185 Gm16733 chr7 20355960 20360752 + ENSMUSG00000085994 186 Ladr 186 Gm11574 chr11 96910005 96912746 − ENSMUSG00000085262 187 Ladr 187 2810429I04Rik chr13 3477489 3493644 + ENSMUSG00000086566 188 Ladr 188 A230004M16Rik chr11 41523844 41786619 + ENSMUSG00000087306 189 Ladr 189 Gm17392 chr17 55696464 55702805 + ENSMUSG00000090426 190 Ladr 190 Gm17699 chr1 130667176 130670998 − ENSMUSG00000091877 191 Ladr 191 A730099G02Rik chr10 48939228 48945459 − ENSMUSG00000091943 192 Ladr 192 Gm17644 chr1 12657644 12663171 + ENSMUSG00000066918 193 Ladr 193 Gm17255 chr9 80849043 81097197 + ENSMUSG00000090679 194 Ladr 194 Gm17638 chr15 77792104 77797556 + ENSMUSG00000091802 195 Ladr 195 Gm16755 chr11 120347653 120349896 − ENSMUSG00000086218 196 Ladr 196 Gm16702 chr17 8571910 8582333 − ENSMUSG00000086627 197 Ladr 197 Gm11934 chr4 33390544 33397112 − ENSMUSG00000086127 198 Ladr 198 Gm15396 chr7 51835338 51845994 − ENSMUSG00000087560 199 Ladr 199 Gm3906 chr9 43921006 43930030 + ENSMUSG00000092003 200 Ladr 200 Gm12976 chr4 128939209 128942254 + ENSMUSG00000087575 201 Ladr 201 Gm16862 chr17 45871455 45925543 + ENSMUSG00000086615 202 Ladr 202 Gm17496 chr16 95237977 95288624 + ENSMUSG00000092023 203 Ladr 203 BC051077 chr5 117762529 117765548 − ENSMUSG00000091333 204 Ladr 204 Gm17632 chr3 116191884 116196276 + ENSMUSG00000090721 205 Ladr 205 Gm17275 chr1 182732699 182739614 + ENSMUSG00000090986 206 Ladr 206 Gm17596 chr9 57379094 57385436 − ENSMUSG00000091932 207 Ladr 207 Gm17327 chr7 35009774 35015255 + ENSMUSG00000090311 208 Ladr 208 Gm17599 chr4 43043871 43045354 + ENSMUSG00000091065 209 Ladr 209 Gm17517 chr8 60650232 60777663 + ENSMUSG00000091944 210 Ladr 210 Gm17336 chr10 128082940 128086867 + ENSMUSG00000091431 211 Ladr 211 A330032B11Rik chr19 37248333 37271031 + ENSMUSG00000085432 212 Ladr 212 1700007J10Rik chr11 59539419 59553656 − ENSMUSG00000086330 213 Ladr 213 Gm11542 chr11 94538879 94548978 + ENSMUSG00000085051 214 Ladr 214 4833417C18Rik chr11 95720179 95722358 + ENSMUSG00000086015 215 Ladr 215 Gm17282 chr13 69948792 69954972 − ENSMUSG00000091909 216 Ladr 216 Mir706 chr6 119983540 119986489 − ENSMUSG00000090388 217 Ladr 217 6430562O15Rik chr13 100166879 100182819 − ENSMUSG00000085195 218 Ladr 218 Gm7782 chr13 65480701 65553664 − ENSMUSG00000090514 219 Ladr 219 2610027K06Rik chr11 85605163 85645725 − ENSMUSG00000087013 220 Ladr 220 1110046J04Rik chr13 34027689 34028499 + ENSMUSG00000085457 221 Ladr 221 Gm17675 chr2 120358640 120365582 + ENSMUSG00000091714 222 Ladr 222 A730081D07Rik chr13 41051783 41096520 − ENSMUSG00000086693 223 Ladr 223 2610206C17Rik chr7 91838150 91925059 + ENSMUSG00000085236 224 Ladr 224 1110019D14Rik chr6 13821526 13994373 + ENSMUSG00000084931 225 Ladr 225 Gm16706 chr11 79830856 79843370 − ENSMUSG00000086787 226 Ladr 226 Gm17317 chr4 146510387 146831128 + ENSMUSG00000091833 227 Ladr 227 Gm16889 chr4 146392344 146866310 − ENSMUSG00000084976 228 Ladr 228 Gm17452 chr4 146120857 146399068 − ENSMUSG00000092143 229 Ladr 229 Gm16739 chr5 110351668 110352500 − ENSMUSG00000085131 230 Ladr 230 Gm11602 chr1 63161045 63204864 + ENSMUSG00000084799 231 Ladr 231 Gm16684 chr17 32947089 32958642 + ENSMUSG00000085948 232 Ladr 232 Gm17548 chr3 63767555 63772581 + ENSMUSG00000091540 233 Ladr 233 Gm2366 chr8 46102570 46107739 − ENSMUSG00000091546 234 Ladr 234 Gm17529 chr12 60054082 60068998 + ENSMUSG00000092098 235 Ladr 235 Gm17451 chr6 38501531 38504007 − ENSMUSG00000092140 236 Ladr 236 3100003L05Rik chr7 131769184 131852449 − ENSMUSG00000086254 237 Ladr 237 2810425M01Rik chr10 76949409 76979175 + ENSMUSG00000086832 238 Ladr 238 Gm17238 chr18 67933366 67934511 − ENSMUSG00000091127 239 Ladr 239 2010110K18Rik chr18 34911463 34918339 + ENSMUSG00000085410 240 Ladr 240 Gm17499 chr10 90612260 90613339 + ENSMUSG00000092024 241 Ladr 241 Gm9917 chr9 107461141 107470746 − ENSMUSG00000053666 242 Ladr 242 Gm16568 chr9 15135017 15139789 + ENSMUSG00000089702 243 Ladr 243 Gm16624 chr5 24202720 24210508 − ENSMUSG00000084903 244 Ladr 244 1500026H17Rik chr10 89149116 89163611 + ENSMUSG00000087686 245 Ladr 245 1700109K24Rik chr15 76914873 76926744 + ENSMUSG00000087126 246 Ladr 246 2010204K13Rik chrX 6988943 7022269 − ENSMUSG00000063018 247 Ladr 247 2010320O07Rik chr18 38369426 38388799 + ENSMUSG00000089983 248 Ladr 248 2610035F20Rik chr14 122869506 122872801 − ENSMUSG00000085555 249 Ladr 249 2810430I11Rik chr2 27738445 27742572 − ENSMUSG00000085766 250 Ladr 250 2900041M22Rik chr11 117472561 117475171 + ENSMUSG00000054418 251 Ladr 251 4732463B04Rik chr12 85380419 85394757 − ENSMUSG00000086299 252 Ladr 252 4833412C05Rik chr7 74929611 74948382 − ENSMUSG00000085850 253 Ladr 253 4930544I03Rik chr12 91991648 92208208 − ENSMUSG00000092100 254 Ladr 254 4932430I15Rik chr5 93233246 93238514 − ENSMUSG00000072828 255 Ladr 255 4933427G23Rik chr5 23321436 23337715 − ENSMUSG00000086697 256 Ladr 256 5330411J11Rik chr2 59220559 59225528 − ENSMUSG00000087455 257 Ladr 257 5430416N02Rik chr5 100849861 100858535 − ENSMUSG00000084877 258 Ladr 258 7530420F21Rik chr1 151922003 151947004 − ENSMUSG00000084952 259 Ladr 259 8030451A03Rik chr4 63640888 63810958 + ENSMUSG00000073821 260 Ladr 260 A230028O05Rik chr16 25059725 25069144 + ENSMUSG00000085040 261 Ladr 261 A330094K24Rik chr18 77968420 77972209 − ENSMUSG00000090400 262 Ladr 262 A930001C03Rik chr19 4439003 4448332 + ENSMUSG00000087132 263 Ladr 263 AI854517 chr7 86645003 86679283 + ENSMUSG00000085554 264 Ladr 264 Airn chr17 12934177 13052988 + ENSMUSG00000078247 265 Ladr 265 B230354K17Rik chr17 45570801 45579493 + ENSMUSG00000073393 266 Ladr 266 C130021I20Rik chr2 33496713 33501869 + ENSMUSG00000052951 267 Ladr 267 C130071C03Rik chr13 83861160 83880913 + ENSMUSG00000050334 268 Ladr 268 Emx2os chr19 59499594 59533125 − ENSMUSG00000087095 269 Ladr 269 Fam150a chr1 6349537 6384812 + ENSMUSG00000087247 270 Ladr 270 G730013B05Rik chr16 50526417 50559548 + ENSMUSG00000085617 271 Ladr 271 Gm10561 chr1 55283095 55292466 + ENSMUSG00000073675 272 Ladr 272 Gm11019 chr13 98204925 98266960 + ENSMUSG00000078952 273 Ladr 273 Gm12100 chr11 30650832 30656147 + ENSMUSG00000087474 274 Ladr 274 Gm13939 chr2 109742553 109753476 − ENSMUSG00000063751 275 Ladr 275 Gm14261 chr2 168591643 168593608 + ENSMUSG00000085322 276 Ladr 276 Gm15270 chr10 24269247 24316914 − ENSMUSG00000087400 277 Ladr 277 Gm15283 chr12 75027468 75050772 − ENSMUSG00000087700 278 Ladr 278 Gm16070 chr1 17666108 17717727 − ENSMUSG00000085125 279 Ladr 279 Gm16091 chr8 74671500 74684754 − ENSMUSG00000087502 280 Ladr 280 Gm16233 chr3 144610525 144617842 + ENSMUSG00000085773 281 Ladr 281 Gm16704 chr19 34549298 34556036 + ENSMUSG00000085164 282 Ladr 282 Gm16707 chr9 119349396 119353948 − ENSMUSG00000086780 283 Ladr 283 Gm16789 chr16 35806033 35809032 − ENSMUSG00000086400 284 Ladr 284 Gm16882 chr18 37906213 37927896 − ENSMUSG00000085906 285 Ladr 285 Gm16896 chr6 89254624 89277615 + ENSMUSG00000085988 286 Ladr 286 Gm16952 chr17 71094669 71104922 − ENSMUSG00000087105 287 Ladr 287 Gm17256 chr12 88673438 88676605 + ENSMUSG00000090672 288 Ladr 288 Gm17278 chr13 65691229 65692497 − ENSMUSG00000091589 289 Ladr 289 Gm17311 chr1 152006173 152012078 − ENSMUSG00000091113 290 Ladr 290 Gm17322 chr9 57845848 57855258 + ENSMUSG00000091267 291 Ladr 291 Gm17396 chr9 117161654 117163814 + ENSMUSG00000079669 292 Ladr 292 Gm17431 chr5 5781530 5783636 + ENSMUSG00000091282 293 Ladr 293 Gm17443 chr8 33118976 33126231 + ENSMUSG00000091819 294 Ladr 294 Gm17513 chr2 177758513 177763441 − ENSMUSG00000090944 295 Ladr 295 Gm17514 chr13 66284015 66304572 − ENSMUSG00000090945 296 Ladr 296 Gm17520 chr1 173353316 173367449 − ENSMUSG00000092117 297 Ladr 297 Gm17560 chr1 93193780 93200982 − ENSMUSG00000091871 298 Ladr 298 Gm17575 chr3 96179569 96192787 − ENSMUSG00000091380 299 Ladr 299 Gm17609 chr4 145191866 145301871 − ENSMUSG00000090398 300 Ladr 300 Gm17685 chr7 152080465 152083366 − ENSMUSG00000090767 301 Ladr 301 Gm17718 chr1 138518675 138521227 − ENSMUSG00000091667 302 Ladr 302 Gm17724 chr5 110814854 110817092 + ENSMUS000000090661 303 Ladr 303 Gm17735 chr13 66345152 66365458 + ENSMUSG00000090502 304 Ladr 304 Gm2115 chr7 91677485 91726847 + ENSMUSG00000085128 305 Ladr 305 Gm4349 chr3 95231593 95235009 + ENSMUSG00000091761 306 Ladr 306 Gm6634 chr3 70576301 70611213 − ENSMUSG00000086538 307 Ladr 307 Gm6846 chr10 21550305 21564657 − ENSMUSG00000085422 308 Ladr 308 Igf2as chr7 149845598 149856261 + ENSMUSG00000086266 309 Ladr 309 Miat chr5 112642248 112657968 − ENSMUSG00000086878 310 Ladr 310 Rgs22 chr15 36067976 36070140 − ENSMUSG00000091092 311 Ladr 311 Sox2ot chr3 34459303 34579773 + ENSMUSG00000090828 312 Ladr 312 Tdrd5 chr1 158185426 158233795 − ENSMUSG00000060985 313 Ladr 313 Tsix chrX 100626856 100680296 + ENSMUSG00000085715 314 Ladr 314 Ttc28 chr5 111308822 111718800 + ENSMUSG00000033209 *DNA strand: + = positive; − = negative

TABLE 2 Upregulated Mouse and Human lncRNA orthologs upon induction of pluripotency SEQ ID NO: lncRNA chr-mm9 left-mm9 right-mm9 50 Ladr50 chr10 66375237 66383006 129 Ladr129 chr11 74986062 74991135 136 Ladr136 chr5 152171284 152216658 150 Ladr150 chr9 56947757 56979097 164 Ladr164 chr12 106574804 106622141 236 Ladr236 chr7 131769184 131852449 32 Ladr32 chr7 99886168 99889978 48 Ladr48 chr1 57416066 57434348 88 Ladr88 chr6 52258383 52264826 58 Ladr58 chr5 129084981 129106568 259 Ladr259 chr4 63640888 63810958 176 Ladr176 chr19 29560845 29597649 263 Ladr263 chr7 86645003 86679283 264 Ladr264 chr17 12934177 13052988 56 Ladr56 chr11 93994799 94017090 267 Ladr267 chr13 83861160 83880913 84 Ladr84 chr5 116573623 116579119 111 Ladr111 chr8 111599122 111797711 157 Ladr157 chr12 111513594 111516278 272 Ladr272 chr13 98204925 98266960 230 Ladr230 chr1 63161045 63204864 277 Ladr277 chr12 75027468 75050772 154 Ladr154 chr7 129282522 129302915 279 Ladr279 chr8 74671500 74684754 145 Ladr145 chr3 7612705 7690001 282 Ladr282 chr9 119349396 119353948 142 Ladr142 chr16 29907605 29946603 201 Ladr201 chr17 45871455 45925543 141 Ladr141 chr8 112385625 112392355 192 Ladr192 chr1 12657644 12663171 43 Ladr43 chr8 89996711 90049453 135 Ladr135 chr8 81819022 81831584 110 Ladr110 chr13 99870661 99877535 130 Ladr130 chr6 52195051 52199794 18 Ladr18 chr12 110779211 110809936 134 Ladr134 chr16 84713268 84715487 74 Ladr74 chr12 110973191 110987665 21 Ladr21 chr12 110842155 110899919 158 Ladr158 chr15 32170324 32174417 311 Ladr311 chr3 34459303 34579773 313 Ladr313 chrX 100626856 100680296 30 Ladr30 chr6 83642800 83662195 47 Ladr47 chrX 100655714 100678556 SEQ ID NO: chr-hc19 left-hg19 right-hg19 315 chr10 65473608 65477165 316 chr17 1946762 1954455 317 chr13 34116876 34220938 318 chr15 75660404 75699561 319 chr14 96342568 96391908 320 chr16 26306223 26376651 321 chr11 82783096 82790139 322 chr2 200761331 200775882 323 chr7 27277134 27283643 324 chr12 130624758 130646888 325 chr9 117806328 117983873 326 chr9 5582670 5629781 327 chr15 89905832 89941709 328 chr6 160303155 160413129 329 chr17 49002131 49028278 330 chr5 87960259 87980578 331 chr12 119969729 119982930 332 chr16 72438983 72698902 333 chr14 102023636 102026673 334 chr5 73669250 73730264 335 chr2 206950705 207007651 336 chr14 62187023 62217777 337 chr16 23673394 23690117 338 chr19 16205669 16222211 339 chr8 79716708 79814703 340 chr3 38532681 38537742 341 chr3 193692107 193721538 342 chr6 43991381 44043849 343 chr16 71757936 71765413 344 chr8 70356940 70361515 345 chr16 49315971 49372596 346 chr4 146521236 146540150 347 chr5 71895453 71900248 348 chr7 27224096 27228917 349 chr14 101292457 101327362 350 chr21 26945089 26947227 351 chr14 101521835 101539271 352 chr14 101361216 101417326 353 chr5 9546382 9550405 354 chr3 181328327 181461409 355 chrX 73014340 73073529 356 chr2 71099447 71128657 357 chrX 73040495 73072548

Additional human Lairs were identified in human skin fibroblasts upon induction of pluripotency reprogramming. These human lncRNAs include SEQ ID NOs. 368-408 as listed in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Human lncRNAs upregulated during pluripotency reprogramming of primary skin fibroblasts. SEQ ID NO: lncRNA chr-hg19 str left-hg19 right-hg19 368 RP11-426L16.8 chr1 − 113362792 113393265 369 AC008069.3 chr2 − 16973247 16978722 370 RP11-5N23.2 chr10 + 6622381 6627641 371 AL513497.1 chr1 − 28835514 28837109 372 AC021224.1 chr18 + 29992145 29993199 373 RP11-308B16.1 chr5 + 12574969 12804475 374 AC022409.1 chr19 − 23582041 23598873 375 AP002856.5 chr11 + 131123317 131170666 376 AC074289.1 chr2 + 64370373 64479993 377 RP11-342C23.4 chr9 + 97320996 97330312 378 AL133167.1 chr14 + 96342729 96391899 379 RP11-277P12.10 chr12 − 10485460 10490891 380 AP003486.1 chr11 − 130434325 130628495 381 RMST chr12 + 97858799 97958793 382 KIAA0040 chr1 − 175126123 175162079 383 AC010627.1 chr5 + 14651755 14653492 384 RP11-69I8.2 chr6 + 132223103 132241705 385 AC009163.1 chr16 + 75507023 75529305 386 AL136362.1 chrX − 91354536 91360178 387 MIR17HG chr13 + 92000074 92006833 388 RP11-771K4.1 chr12 − 31516415 31522235 389 AC078819.1 chr12 − 104424522 104426026 390 AP000689.1 chr21 − 37502670 37648524 391 RP11-562F9.2 chr4 − 93189918 93198226 392 RP11-168P6.1 chr13 − 54689924 54707001 393 RP11-168O16.1 chr1 + 200993077 200997920 394 RP11-713B9.1 chr11 + 115045697 115046044 395 SOX2OT chr3 + 180721562 181508734 396 RP11-403C10.2 chr8 − 9757574 9762876 397 RP11-697K23.1 chr3 − 45720535 45730626 398 AC020928.1 chr19 + 37264055 37267978 399 RP11-366M4.3 chr4 + 165798156 165820117 400 RP11-20D14.6 chr12 + 8940853 8948385 401 AC126775.1 chr5 + 146939557 147041572 402 AL691420.1 chr9 + 118235807 118353358 403 AC005753.1 chr5 + 141227143 141231803 404 RP11-799O21.1 chr10 + 6821560 6884868 405 RP11-129K20.2 chr3 + 62936105 63110738 406 AC112484.1 chr3 − 128679210 128684200 407 AC005394.1 chr19 − 28926300 29218587 DNA strand: + = positive strand; − = negative strand

In other embodiments of the present invention, improved somatic cell reprogramming includes the absence or repression of the lncRNAs disclosed herein to be downregulated during reprogramming of the somatic cells. The lncRNAs which are disclosed herein to be downregulated during induced pluripotency include the mouse lncRNAs (SEQ ID NOs. 415-424) as listed in Table 4A and the human lncRNAs (SEQ ID NOs. 358-367) as listed in Table 4B.

In some embodiments, decreasing the expression or cellular activity in mouse cells includes using one or more of the mouse lncRNAs encoded by SEQ ID NOs: 415-424, or decreasing the expression or cellular activity in human cells using one or more of the human lncRNAs enclosed by SEQ ID NOs. 358-367 as listed in Table 4B.

TABLE 4A Mouse (mm9) downregulated lncRNAs during iPS cell reprogramming SEQ ID chr- 1ncRNA NO: mm9 Str* left-mm9 right-mm9 2210408F21Rik 415 chr6 + 31170351 31287404 D030054H15Rik 416 chr17 − 8075373 8139217 Gm13986 417 chr2 − 117683027 117936938 Gm14005 418 chr2 − 128021729 128255085 Gm14488 419 chr2 − 30568667 30575577 Gm16625 420 chr8 + 25532876 25550480 1700020I14Rik 421 chr2 + 119420033 119433238 2410006H16Rik 422 chr11 + 62416379 62418309 9430037G07Rik 423 chr9 − 88490163 88494354 Gm17480 424 chr17 + 25931839 26101729 *DNA strand: + = positive strand; − = negative strand

TABLE 4B Human (hg19) liftOver coordinates of mm9 in Table 4A. SEQ ID lncRNA NO: chr-hg19 left-hg19 right-hg19 2210408F21Rik 358 chr7 130794788 130934427 D030054H15Rik 359 chr6 159420370 159509319 Gm13986 360 chr15 39537299 39872516 Gm14005 361 chr2 111966340 112252695 Gm14488 362 chr9 132251908 132259983 Gm16625 363 chr8 40009983 40028634 1700020I14Rik 364 chr15 41576169 41598737 2410006H16Rik 365 chr17 16342356 16345222 9430037G07Rik 366 chr6 86386845 86388510 Gm17480 367 chr16 597538 767429

Additional human downregulated lncRNAs were identified in human skin fibroblasts upon induction of pluripotency reprogramming. These human lncRNAs include SEQ ID NOs. 408-414 as listed in Table 5.

Table 5. Downregulated human lncRNAs during induced pluripotency in human skin fibroblasts

SEQ ID NO: lncRNA chr-hg19 str* left-hg19 right-hg19 408 C17orf91 chr17 − 1614805 1619504 409 AC005323.1 chr17 + 10286461 10527704 410 RP11-834C11.4 chr12 + 54519882 54526627 411 RP11-792D21.2 chr4 + 79567057 79603853 412 AP000769.4 chr11 + 65211929 65212028 413 RP11-90J7.3 chr10 + 80008497 80434724 414 NEAT1 chr11 + 65190245 65213011 *DNA strand: + = positive strand; − = negative strand

Embodiments of the present invention include lncRNAs which are upregulated or downregulated upon induction of pluripotency and/or inhibition of Mek and Gsk3, referred to herein as “2i inhibition” or “2i conditions.” In some embodiments of the present invention, improved pluripotency by reprogramming of a somatic cell, includes the presence of the activated lncRNAs (i.e., Ladrs) in a pluripotency cell reaction. Methods for reprogramming of human induced pluripotent stem cells is described herein and has been previously described in Loewer et al., 2010, Nature Genetics, 42: 1113-1117, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. For example, reprogramming of induced pluripotent stem cells may include induction of the Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, c-Myc (OSKM) transcription factors and/or the “dual inhibition” of Mek and Gsk3 also known as “2i.”

In some embodiments, the lncRNA and lncRNA fragments of the present invention include fragments of the sequence that are at least 20 nucleotides (nt) in length. In one embodiment, an lncRNA molecule includes a nucleotide sequence that is at least about 85% or more homologous or identical to the entire length of a lncRNA sequence shown herein, e.g., in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or a fragment comprising at least 20 nt thereof (e.g., at least 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 nt thereof, e.g., at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50% or more of the full length lncRNA). In some embodiments, the nucleotide sequence is at least about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% homologous or identical to a lncRNA sequence shown herein.

In Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 disclosed herein the genomic coordinates are provided for each lncRNA. As understood by a person having ordinary skill in the art, any lncRNA transcripts that overlap by at least 1 base pair with the genomic coordinates of the lncRNAs disclosed herein, should be considered isoforms of these lncRNAs with analogous functional roles during somatic cell reprogramming or pluripotent stem cell differentiation.

In order to determine the percent identity of two nucleic acid sequences, the sequences are aligned for optimal comparison purposes (e.g., gaps can be introduced in an nucleic acid sequence for optimal alignment and non-homologous sequences can be disregarded for comparison purposes). The length of a reference sequence aligned for comparison purposes is at least 80% of the length of the reference sequence, and in some embodiments is at least 90% or 100%. The nucleotide positions are then compared. When a position in the first sequence is occupied by the same nucleotide as the corresponding position in the second sequence, then the molecules are identical at that position (as used herein nucleic acid “identity” is equivalent to nucleic acid “homology”). The percent identity between the two sequences is a function of the number of identical positions shared by the sequences, taking into account the number of gaps, and the length of each gap, which need to be introduced for optimal alignment of the two sequences.

For purposes of the present invention, the comparison of sequences and determination of percent identity between two sequences may be accomplished using a Blossum 62 scoring matrix with a gap penalty of 12, a gap extend penalty of 4, and a frameshift gap penalty of 5.

Methods of Pluripotency Reprogramming or Pluripotent Cell Differentiation.

Methods of enhancing pluripotency reprogramming or pluripotent cell differentiation are disclosed herein. The lncRNAs described herein, including fragments thereof that are at least 20 nt in length, and inhibitory nucleic acids and small molecules targeting (e.g., complementary to) them, can be used to modulate pluripotency reprogramming. Methods for enchanced pluripotency reprogramming include the addition or activation of Ladr molecules disclosed in Tables 1, 2, and/or 3 and/or the inhibition of the lncRNAs disclosed in Tables 4A, 4B and/or 5. Conversely, enchancing pluripotent cell differentiation includes the absence or repression of the Ladr sequences in Tables 1, 2, and/or 3 and/or the addition or activation of the lncRNA sequences in Tables 4A, 4B and/or 5.

For enhancing pluripotency reprogramming of a somatic cell or differentiation of a pluripotent cell, addition or activation of at least one lncRNA may include one of many known suitable methods. For example, the somatic cell or pluripotent cell may be contacted with (e.g., cultured with) synthetic lncRNAs or in vitro transcribed lncRNA encoding the lncRNA or a fragment thereof. Additional non-limiting examples for increasing the presence of lncRNA in the presence of somatic cell for induced pluripotency reprogramming includes delivery vectors, viral viruses, and chemical synthesis.

Enhancing pluripotency reprogramming of a somatic cell or differentiation of a pluripotent cell may include inhibition or repression of at least one lncRNA may include one of many known suitable methods. For example, the somatic cell or pluripotent cell may be contacted with (e.g., cultured with) an inhibiting nucleic acid of at least one lncRNA. Inhibiting nucleic acid molecules include antisense oligonucleotides, interfering RNA (RNAi) including small interfering RNA (siRNA) and short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Inhibiting nucleic acid molecules used to practice the methods described herein, whether RNA, cDNA, genomic DNA, vectors, viruses or hybrids thereof, can be isolated from a variety of sources, genetically engineered, amplified, and/or expressed/generated recombinantly. If desired, nucleic acid sequences of the invention can be inserted into delivery vectors and expressed from transcription units within the vectors. The recombinant vectors can be DNA plasmids or viral vectors. Generation of the vector construct can be accomplished using any suitable genetic engineering techniques well known in the art, including, without limitation, the standard techniques of PCR, oligonucleotide synthesis, restriction endonuclease digestion, ligation, transformation, plasmid purification, and DNA sequencing, for example as described in Sambrook et al. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. (1989)), Coffin et al. (Retroviruses. (1997)) and “RNA Viruses: A Practical Approach” (Alan J. Cann, Ed., Oxford University Press, (2000), the entire contents of all of which are herein incorporated by reference).

In some embodiments, inhibitory nucleic acids of the invention are synthesized chemically. Nucleic acid sequences used to practice this invention can be synthesized in vitro by well-known chemical synthesis techniques, as described in, e.g., Adams (1983) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 105:661; Belousov (1997) Nucleic Acids Res. 25:3440-3444; Frenkel (1995) Free Radic. Biol. Med. 19:373-380; Blommers (1994) Biochemistry 33:7886-7896; Narang (1979) Meth. Enzymol. 68:90; Brown (1979) Meth. Enzymol. 68:109; Beaucage (1981) Tetra. Lett. 22:1859; U.S. Pat. No. 4,458,066; WO/2008/043753 and WO/2008/049085, and the references cited therein, the entire contents of all of which are herein incorporated by reference.

In some embodiments, a method of enhancing pluripotency reprogramming of a somatic human cell includes the addition or activation of at least one human lncRNA selected from Tables 2 and/or 3. In other embodiments, a method of enhancing human pluripotent cell differentiation includes the addition or activation of at least one human lncRNA selected from Tables 4B and/or 5.

In some embodiments, a method for enhancing pluripotency reprogramming of a somatic cell or differentiation of a pluripotent cell, includes inhibition or repression of at least one human lncRNA selected from Tables 4B or 5. In other embodiments, a method of enhancing human pluripotent cell differentiation includes the addition or activation of at least one human lncRNA selected from Tables 2 and/or 3.

It is understood by a person having ordinary skill in the art, that any of the modified chemistries or formats of inhibitory nucleic acids described herein can be combined with each other, and that one, two, three, four, five, or more different types of modifications can be included within the same molecule.

The following Examples are presented for illustrative purposes only, and do not limit the scope or contents of the present application.

Example 1 Single-Cell Transcriptome Analysis of Activated Genes During Reprogramming

In order to characterize the transcriptomes of individual reprogramming cells at defined timepoints, single-cell RNA-sequencing was performed as described (Ramskold et al., 2012, Nat Biotechnol 30, 777-782, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) using cells from the “reprogrammable” mouse (Carey, B. W. et al., 2010, Nat Methods 7, 56-59, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Tail-tip fibroblasts (TTF) from these mice, which harbor doxycycline (dox)-inducible OSKM transgenes (FIG. 2A) were generated, and these cells were cultured in the presence of dox for 3 weeks. ES cell-like colonies that expressed SSEA1 began to appear after 3 weeks, and these early-stage iPS cells were cultured for an additional 3-6 weeks in the absence of dox. Late-stage iPS cells at week 6 (Wk6), which had single-cell cloning efficiencies of ˜50% when compared to ES cells (FIG. 2B), were also cultured in 2i conditions to facilitate establishment of the pluripotent ground state (Silva, J. et al., 2008, PLoS Biol 6, e253, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Additionally, two different ES cell lines (E14 and EL16.7) were cultured to compare similarities between ES and iPS cell transcriptomes at the single-cell level (FIG. 3).

Protein-coding genes that were activated during reprogramming and the acquisition of pluripotency were first examined. That is, approximately 3,000 activated genes were expressed at 10 RPKM (reads per kilobase per million mapped reads) (Mortazavi, A. et al., 2008, Nat Methods 5, 621-628, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) or higher in non-TTF cells, while being off in TTF cells (expressed at less than 1 RPKM) (FIG. 4A). When hierarchical clustering was performed, the cells from both ES lines clustered together, along with the late-stage iPS cells that were cultured in 2i conditions. Both early- and late-stage iPS cells cultured in non-2i conditions clustered together, suggesting different latencies in their reprogramming/remodeling kinetics (Hanna, J. et al., 2009, Nature 462, 595-601, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). In late-stage iPS cells, imposing 2i conditions pushed their protein-coding transcriptomes (FIG. 4B) to more closely resemble the pluripotent ground state of ES cells (FIG. 4C).

The expression patterns of known pluripotency-related genes that are widely used as faithful predictors of proper iPS cell reprogramming were next examined (Buganim, Y. et al., 2012, Cell 150, 1209-1222, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). It was found that the genes Esrrb, Utf1, Lin28, and Dppa2 were all expressed starting at week 3 (Wk3) in this reprogramming timecourse, as well as Nanog and Rex1. However, Polycomb histone methyltransferase Ezh2, which physically binds to numerous lncRNAs according to (Guttman, M. et al., 2011, Nature 477, 295-300; Zhao, J. et al., 2010, Mol Cell 40, 939-953, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference), was heterogeneously expressed in both early- and late-stage iPS cells (FIG. 4D and FIGS. 5A, 5B, 5C). This heterogeneity in Ezh2 expression was attenuated under 2i conditions (FIG. 4D).

Example 2 Visualizing Single-Cell Transcriptome Dynamics Using the Self Organizing Map (SOM)

In order identify dynamic changes in the single-cell transcriptomes of reprogramming cells, a self-organizing map (SOM) (Kohonen, T., 2013, Neural Netw 37, 52-65, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) was generated, which facilitates visualization of gene sets that are coordinately expressed during the reprogramming timecourse (FIGS. 6 and 7A). The 5,000 protein-coding and lncRNA genes were used with the greatest variance among the single-cell RNA-seq data to train the SOM. The results of FIG. 7A show that TTFs strongly express genes involved in body axis anatomy and development of muscle. Notably, intermediate reprogramming cells at week 2 (Wk2) expressed numerous genes that are required for proper germ cell development and fertility, including Blimp1 (Ohinata, Y. et al., 2005, Nature 436, 207-213, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference), Spin1, Mfge8, Usp2, Inpp5b, Jam3, and Zfp37 (FIGS. 7A-7B) (Eppig, J. T. et al., 2012, Nucleic Acids Res 40, D881-886, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). These results suggest that somatic cell reprogramming takes advantage of existing developmental programs in germ cells, where global reprogramming of the epigenome occurs as part of normal embryonic development (Hayashi, K. et al., 2009, Cell Stem Cell 4, 493-498, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference).

By week 3 (Wk3) of reprogramming, individual cells began to express genes that are involved in RNA metabolism and noncoding RNA processing (FIG. 7A). Surprisingly, late-stage iPS cells at Wk6 strongly expressed hundreds of pseudogenes (FIG. 7A), which can be processed into small regulatory RNAs in oocytes (Tam, O. H. et al., 2008, Nature 453, 534-538, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Late-stage iPS cells at week 8 (Wk8) expressed known pluripotency factors at high levels, including Oct4, Nanog, Esrrb, and Sall4, but they failed to exhibit full activation of germ cell regulatory genes such as Stella and Prdm14, which are highly expressed in ES cells (FIG. 7A). These results indicate that while the transcriptional landscape of late-stage iPS cells are quite similar to ES cells, there are also notable differences in expression of both protein-coding and noncoding genes at the single-cell level.

Example 3 Germ Cell-Related Genes are Expressed in Late-Stage iPS Cells

In order to validate the expression patterns of germ cell-related genes in the single-cell RNA-seq data of FIG. 8, smFISH as described in (Raj, A. et al., 2008, Nat Methods 5, 877-879, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) was used as an orthogonal, amplification-independent method to characterize the full distribution of Stella, Prdm14, Blimp1, Rex1, Oct4, and Sox2 RNAs in hundreds of late-stage iPS cells (n=303) at Wk6 (FIG. 9). The results of this amplification methods, Stella and Prdm14 appeared to be heterogeneously expressed during the reprogramming timecourse and were first detected at Wk6, whereas ES cells expressed these genes more uniformly (FIG. 8). Using 4-color smFISH, it was observed that Stella, Prdm14, and Blimp1 levels were all higher in individual iPS cells that also expressed greater levels of Rex1, while cells with low Rex1 expression generally did not express these genes (FIGS. 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D). These results suggest that late-stage iPS cells with high levels of Rex1 may exhibit more germ cell character.

Additionally, late-stage iPS cells began to express Piwi12 (FIG. 11A), which associates with Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) in the germline to epigenetically silence retrotransposons (Aravin, A. A. et al., 2007, Science 316, 744-747, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). At the population level, iPS cells expressed genes involved in piRNA function and biogenesis (FIG. 11B). The 2′-O-methylated small RNAs were cloned and sequenced (Li, X. Z. et al., 2013, Mol Cell 50, 67-81, the contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) from iPS cells, which exhibited a characteristic size distribution peak of 26 nt (FIG. 11C), analogous to Piwil2-associated piRNAs (Aravin, A. A. et al., 2008, Mol Cell 31, 785-799, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). The sequencing showed that approximately 40% of 2′-O-methylated small RNAs had a 5′U (FIG. 11D), reminiscent of primary piRNAs in the germline (Luteijn, M. J. et al., 2013, Nat Rev Genet 14, 523-534, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Moreover, approximately 40% of small RNAs mapped to retrotransposons (FIG. 11E). Taken together with a recent study in human iPS cells (Marchetto, M. C. et al., 2013, Nature 503, 525-529, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference), the results suggest that piRNAs are activated during epigenetic reprogramming.

Example 4 Long Noncoding RNAs Activated During Reprogramming (Ladr)

The changes in the lncRNA transcriptome during reprogramming were examined. Similar to the analysis of protein-coding genes, the focus was on activated lncRNAs (FIG. 1; Tables 1 and 3) that were expressed at 10 RPKM or higher in non-TTF cells, while being repressed in TTFs (below 1 RPKM). The results showed that approximately 150 lncRNAs were activated during the acquisition of pluripotency, and some lncRNAs showed apparent heterogeneity in their expression patterns, even in 2i conditions (FIG. 12). To validate these observations for specific lncRNAs, smFISH was used to characterize the expression patterns of 3 Polycomb-associated IneRNAs (FIGS. 13A, 13B, 13C, 14A, 14B, 14C) in hundreds of cells (n=351). Ladr37 was strongly expressed in both iPS and ES cells, and Ladr80 was weakly expressed in both cell types (FIG. 12 and FIGS. 13B, 13C, 14B, 14C). The distributions of Ladr80 expression in late-stage iPS cells at Wk6 and Wk9 were indistinguishable from ES cells, but Ladr37 expression was aberrantly high in a subset of Wk6 iPS cells relative to ES cells (FIGS. 13B, 13C, 14B, 14C). Also, a subset of Wk9 iPS cells expressed even higher levels of Lad37 (61-113 lncRNA molecules/cell) relative to ES cells (median: 14 lncRNA molecules/cell) (FIGS. 13B, 13C, 14B, 14C), revealing a broad range of heterogeneity in Ladr37 expression, even in late-stage iPS cells.

Example 5 Polycomb-Associated Ladr lncRNAs Repress Developmental Genes in iPS Cells

In order to examine the functional roles of Ladr80 and Ladr37, a pool of 2-4 small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) per lncRNA were used to knock down their expression levels in late-stage iPS cells at Wk9 (FIG. 15A). While knockdown of Ladr80 or Ladr37 had modest effects on reprogramming efficiencies (FIG. 15B), Ladr80 knockdown resulted in the significant upregulation of muscle-related genes in iPS cells. Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed significant enrichment for the GO terms “contractile fiber,” “sarcomere,” and “striated muscle thin filament” (FIG. 16A). These muscle-related genes were also expressed in TTFs and intermediate cells at Wk2, but their repression at subsequent timepoints coincided with the activation of the Polycomb genes Ezh2 and Suz12 (FIG. 16B), along with the Polycomb-associated Ladr80 lncRNA (FIG. 12). These results indicate that Ladr80 activation is required to repress a subset of the myogenic program during the course of iPS cell reprogramming.

Furthermore, Ladr37 knockdown resulted in the upregulation of a subset of muscle genes that were also upregulated upon Ladr80 loss-of-function (FIG. 16C), suggesting that lncRNAs may act redundantly during cell fate reprogramming. In addition, Ladr37 knockdown also led to the upregulation of two homeodomain transcription factors involved in limb development: Alx4 and Six2. However, both Ladr80 and Ladr37 knockdowns did not detectably perturb the expression levels of the reprogramming/pluripotency-related genes Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, c-Myc, Lin28, and Nanog (FIG. 16D), consistent with a specific role for these lncRNAs in repressing developmental genes during reprogramming.

When the differential expression of all Ensembl-annotated lncRNAs was analyzed in populations of ES cells and TTFs, Ladr37 and Ladr80 were among the 48 most significantly upregulated lncRNAs in ES cells versus TTFs (FIG. 16E). Of these 48 upregulated lncRNAs, 22 lncRNAs (46%) associate with Polycomb in ES cells (Guttman et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2010, supra), whereas of the 37 lncRNAs that are significantly upregulated in TTFs (downregulated in ES cells), only 3 lncRNAs (8%) associate with Polycomb in the pluripotent state (FIG. 16F). These results suggest that additional Polycomb-associated Ladr lncRNAs have functional roles in silencing lineage-specific genes.

Example 6 2i Induces a PGC-Like State in the lncRNA Transcriptome of Late-Stage iPS Cells

It was next examined whether 2i conditions altered the lncRNA landscape in late-stage iPS cells at Wk6. For example, 2i conditions produced a coherent activation of 92 additional lncRNAs (FIG. 17, Tables 1 and 3). Given the delayed activation kinetics of germ cell-related genes in late-stage iPS cells, it was examined whether 2i conditions might enhance their germ cell-like character. Single-cell RNA-seq data from E6.5-E8.5 PGCs was analyzed (Magnusdottir, E. et al., 2013, Nat Cell Biol 15, 905-915, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) and it was found that a coherent cluster of 2i-activated lncRNAs in iPS cells was also coherently expressed at high levels in PGCs (FIG. 17A). The 2i conditions also resulted in a significant upregulation of Stella (FIG. 17A, FIG. 17B), which is the definitive marker of PGC specification (Leitch, H. G. et al., 2013, Development 140, 2495-2501; and Saitou, M. et al., 2002, Nature 418, 293-300, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). These results show that iPS cells treated with 2i adopt a more germ cell-like character, similar to ES cells (Hayashi, K. et al., 2008, Cell Stem Cell 3, 391-401, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference), that is especially prominent in their lncRNA transcriptome.

TABLE 6A Early activation: Wk 2/Wk 3 SEQ ID NO: Ladr No lncRNA 34 Ladr34 4930461G14Rik 142 Ladr142 Gm16761 130 Ladr130 Hoxa11as 49 Ladr49 Gm10143 158 Ladr158 Snord123 125 Ladr125 A930029G22Rik 131 Ladr131 Gm17477 79 Ladr79 Gm17279 94 Ladr94 Gm13830 91 Ladr91 Gm12898 141 Ladr141 Gm17344 107 Ladr107 1110020A21Rik 136 Ladr136 1700028E10Rik 147 Ladr147 4933431E20Rik 144 Ladr144 A230056P14Rik 133 Ladr133 A330040F15Rik 132 Ladr132 C030037D09Rik 137 Ladr137 Gm10575 143 Ladr143 Gm11538 128 Ladr128 Gm11818 113 Ladr113 Gm12059 138 Ladr138 Gm15545 115 Ladr115 Gm16244 145 Ladr145 Gm16685 117 Ladr117 Gm16845 148 Ladr148 Gm17565 146 Ladr146 Gm17690 114 Ladr114 Gm17716 135 Ladr135 Gm4890 134 Ladr134 Mir155 37 Ladr37 4930500J02Rik 17 Ladr17 4930566F21Rik 46 Ladr46 Gm17300 36 Ladr36 2410003L11Rik 41 Ladr41 2500002B13Rik 30 Ladr30 Vax2os1 16 Ladr16 2310043M15Rik 29 Ladr29 9230114K14Rik 122 Ladr122 Nespas 80 Ladr80 Gm16096 70 Ladr70 C430002E04Rik 127 Ladr127 Gm15522 35 Ladr35 Gm16957 54 Ladr54 Gm16986 129 Ladr129 1700016P03Rik 116 Ladr116 3110045C21Rik 69 Ladr69 4930509G22Rik 40 Ladr40 9530027J09Rik 22 Ladr22 9830144P21Rik 111 Ladr111 D030068K23Rik 68 Ladr68 Gm17561 71 Ladr71 Gm17605 55 Ladr55 Gm17656 66 Ladr66 Gm17710 110 Ladr110 Gm807

TABLE 6B Late activation: Wk 6+ SEQ ID NO: Ladr No lncRNA 18 Ladr18 Meg3 21 Ladr21 Rian 3 Ladr3 1810019D21Rik 23 Ladr23 4930513N10Rik 95 Ladr95 C330013F16Rik 150 Ladr150 2410133F24Rik 57 Ladr57 Abhd1 39 Ladr39 Gm13110 26 Ladr26 Gm16641 108 Ladr108 Gm16723 25 Ladr25 Gm17250 38 Ladr38 Gm17335 97 Ladr97 2010300F17Rik 96 Ladr96 4930467K11Rik 99 Ladr99 9530080O11Rik 119 Ladr119 A930011O12Rik 4 Ladr4 B230208H11Rik 100 Ladr100 BC046401 83 Ladr83 Gm13657 102 Ladr102 Gm14817 86 Ladr86 Gm16827 81 Ladr81 Gm17440 103 Ladr103 Gm17501 82 Ladr82 Gm17594 85 Ladr85 Gm17637 65 Ladr65 Gm17659 98 Ladr98 Gm2464 14 Ladr14 4930526L06Rik 2 Ladr2 4930444M15Rik 19 Ladr19 3110056K07Rik 27 Ladr27 2310010G23Rik 28 Ladr28 2810442I21Rik 42 Ladr42 4933404O12Rik 139 Ladr139 A030009H04Rik 90 Ladr90 Gm16159 77 Ladr77 Gm16283 62 Ladr62 Gm16880 109 Ladr109 Gm16972 72 Ladr72 Gm17362 53 Ladr53 Gm17418 33 Ladr33 Gm17491 104 Ladr104 Gm17502 76 Ladr76 Gm17597 124 Ladr124 Gm17713 43 Ladr43 Gm2694 61 Ladr61 Gm2788 63 Ladr63 Gm4419 74 Ladr74 Mirg 47 Ladr47 Xist 87 Ladr87 Atp10d 84 Ladr84 C330018A13Rik 149 Ladr149 1700030C12Rik 24 Ladr24 4930404I05Rik 10 Ladr10 A330048O09Rik 5 Ladr5 Gm15728 48 Ladr48 4930558J18Rik 64 Ladr64 9330185C12Rik 123 Ladr123 Gm10492 20 Ladr20 Gm15441 1 Ladr1 Gm17586 7 Ladr7 2700086A05Rik 121 Ladr121 4833407H14Rik 12 Ladr12 4930481B07Rik 93 Ladr93 6030442K20Rik 13 Ladr13 A730011C13Rik 126 Ladr126 Gm16046 92 Ladr92 Gm16973 9 Ladr9 Gm17291 101 Ladr101 Gm17481 73 Ladr73 Gm17525 11 Ladr11 Gm17698 6 Ladr6 Gm2529 8 Ladr8 C430039J16Rik 112 Ladr112 Gm8378 140 Ladr140 0610005C13Rik 75 Ladr75 1010001B22Rik 50 Ladr50 1110002J07Rik 31 Ladr31 1700007L15Rik 105 Ladr105 1700023H06Rik 51 Ladr51 1700086O06Rik 32 Ladr32 4632427E13Rik 106 Ladr106 4930480K23Rik 78 Ladr78 4933407K13Rik 88 Ladr88 5730457N03Rik 58 Ladr58 5930412G12Rik 52 Ladr52 6720401G13Rik 44 Ladr44 A230072C01Rik 56 Ladr56 B230206L02Rik 120 Ladr120 C030010L15Rik 45 Ladr45 C330046G13Rik 151 Ladr151 C530005A16Rik 59 Ladr59 E130018N17Rik 118 Ladr118 Gm10658 67 Ladr67 Gm10785 89 Ladr89 Gm11714 60 Ladr60 Gm14022 15 Ladr15 Gm15787

TABLE 6C 2i-induced activation: Wk 6 SEQ ID NO: Ladr No lncRNA 220 Ladr220 1110046J04Rik 224 Ladr224 1110019D14Rik 212 Ladr212 1700007J10Rik 159 Ladr159 1700023L04Rik 239 Ladr239 2010110K18Rik 183 Ladr183 2310031A07Rik 219 Ladr219 2610027K06Rik 223 Ladr223 2610206C17Rik 164 Ladr164 2810011L19Rik 237 Ladr237 2810425M01Rik 187 Ladr187 2810429I04Rik 182 Ladr182 2900052L18Rik 177 Ladr177 3010001F23Rik 236 Ladr236 3100003L05Rik 214 Ladr214 4833417C18Rik 184 Ladr184 4930506C21Rik 217 Ladr217 6430562O15Rik 155 Ladr155 9530059O14Rik 188 Ladr188 A230004M16Rik 211 Ladr211 A330032B11Rik 178 Ladr178 A330076H08Rik 222 Ladr222 A730081D07R1k 191 Ladr191 A730099G02Rik 176 Ladr176 A930007I19Rik 174 Ladr174 AY512931 203 Ladr203 BC051077 169 Ladr169 C330002G04Rik 157 Ladr157 Dio3os 172 Ladr172 F630040L22Rik 160 Ladr160 Gdap10 180 Ladr180 Gm10425 194 Ladr194 Gm17638 192 Ladr192 Gm17644 221 Ladr221 Gm17675 162 Ladr162 Gm17692 190 Ladr190 Gm17699 153 Ladr153 Gm17701 233 Ladr233 Gm2366 199 Ladr199 Gm3906 175 Ladr175 Gm6410 218 Ladr218 Gm7782 241 Ladr241 Gm9917 216 Ladr216 Mir706 213 Ladr213 Gm11542 186 Ladr186 Gm11574 230 Ladr230 Gm11602 197 Ladr197 Gm11934 167 Ladr167 Gm12592 163 Ladr163 Gm12784 200 Ladr200 Gm12976 168 Ladr168 Gm13261 198 Ladr198 Gm15396 154 Ladr154 Gm15489 179 Ladr179 Gm15850 242 Ladr242 Gm16568 165 Ladr165 Gm16618 243 Ladr243 Gm16624 181 Ladr181 Gm16629 231 Ladr231 Gm16684 196 Ladr196 Gm16702 225 Ladr225 Gm16706 185 Ladr185 Gm16733 229 Ladr229 Gm16739 195 Ladr195 Gm16755 201 Ladr201 Gm16862 170 Ladr170 Gm16869 227 Ladr227 Gm16889 166 Ladr166 Gm16912 171 Ladr171 Gm16938 156 Ladr156 Gm17102 238 Ladr238 Gm17238 152 Ladr152 Gm17254 193 Ladr193 Gm17255 205 Ladr205 Gm17275 215 Ladr215 Gm17282 226 Ladr226 Gm17317 207 Ladr207 Gm17327 210 Ladr210 Gm17336 189 Ladr189 Gm17392 173 Ladr173 Gm17445 235 Ladr235 Gm17451 228 Ladr228 Gm17452 202 Ladr202 Gm17496 240 Ladr240 Gm17499 161 Ladr161 Gm17500 209 Ladr209 Gm17517 234 Ladr234 Gm17529 232 Ladr232 Gm17548 206 Ladr206 Gm17596 208 Ladr208 Gm17599 204 Ladr204 Gm17632

Ladr lncRNAs have both common and distinctive characteristics when compared with lncRNAs expressed in ES cells (FIG. 18A, 18B, 18C). Of the 243 Ladr lncRNAs, 115 (47%) associate with Polycomb proteins in ES cells (FIG. 19A) (Guttman et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2010, supra). Ladr lncRNAs are also enriched for the LTR transposable element ERVK, an endogenous retrovirus (FIG. 19B). It was previously shown that lncRNAs containing endogenous retroviral elements are expressed at higher levels in ES cells relative to somatic cells (Kelley, D. et al., 2012, Genome Biol 13, R107, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Although Ladr80 was not comprised of any ERVK sequence, Ladr37 was flanked by two different ERVK elements whose sequences overlapped with its 5′ and 3′ exons (FIG. 19C), which may contribute to its high levels of expression in both ES and iPS cells (FIG. 12) (Kelley and Rinn, 2012, supra). Of the 92 Ladr lncRNAs that were strongly upregulated in response to 2i, more than half (n=47) were associated with ERVK elements. Taken together with results from a previous study (Kelley and Rinn, 2012, supra), the results suggest that endogenous retroviral elements are involved in Ladr lncRNA regulation during reprogramming.

Example 7 Ladr lncRNA Regulation by ES Cell and PGC Transcriptional Networks

In order to examine whether Ladr lncRNAs were regulated by ES cell or PGC transcription factor networks, chromatin immunoprecipitation high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) data was analyzed for the core pluripotency factors Oct4/Sox2/Nanog (Marson, A. et al., 2008, Cell 134, 521-533, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) and for Prdm14/AP2γ, which initiate the specification of PGCs (Magnusdottir et al., 2013, supra). Late-stage iPS cells, both in the absence and presence of 2i, expressed 5- to 20-fold higher levels of AP2γ relative to ES cells (FIG. 20A). Moreover, of the 243 Ladr lncRNAs, AP2γ had the highest number of binding sites within lncRNA promoters (n=86) (FIG. 20B). Prdm14 and Oct4 exhibited the second (n=71) and third (n=31) highest number of binding sites, respectively (FIG. 20B). Ladr lncRNAs whose expression patterns correlated most strongly with Oct4 were generally expressed in ES cells, while lncRNAs that were anti-correlated with Oct4 tended to be expressed in TTFs (FIG. 18C). It was also observed that many of the Ladr lncRNA genes were bound by multiple transcription factors. For example, the Ladr80 promoter region was bound by Sox2, Nanog, and Prdm14, while a 2i-induced lncRNA, Ladr169, was bound by Oct4/Sox2/Nanog and Prdm14/AP2γ (FIG. 20C). However, the Ladr37 promoter was not bound by any of these factors, while Ladr43 was bound by AP2γ (FIG. 20C). These findings suggest that both ES cell and PGC transcriptional networks regulate Ladr activation during iPS cell reprogramming.

Example 8 Ladr lncRNA Suppression of Lineage-Specific Genes

To search for additional lineage-specific Ladr lncRNAs, upregulated genes were analyzed in iPS cells derived from hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPC) (Chang, G. et al., 2014, Cell Res 24, 293-306, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). This analysis revealed that 130 lncRNAs were activated during HPC reprogramming into iPS cells, and more than half (n=71) were upregulated specifically in HPC-iPS cells, while the remaining lncRNAs (n=59) were activated during both HPC and TTF reprogramming (FIGS. 21B and 12). Of the 71 HPC-iPS lncRNAs, most were not expressed in ES or TTF-iPS cells (FIG. 21C). However, a small number of HPC-iPS lncRNAs were prominently expressed in ES cells, while exhibiting apparent heterogeneity in our iPS cells and TTFs (FIG. 21C). One of these lncRNAs (Ladr246) was examined using smFISH, which showed that Wk6 iPS cells expressed Ladr246 at aberrantly low levels relative to ES cells (FIG. 21D). In Wk9 iPS cells, however, the distribution of Ladr246 expression was indistinguishable from that of ES cells, indicating relatively late activation kinetics for Ladr246 (FIG. 21D, 21E). Additionally, when Ladr246 loss-of-function studies were performed in Wk9 iPS cells (FIGS. 15A, 15B), it was observed that Ladr246 was required to repress three genes involved in interferon signaling: Irgm1, Usp18, and Ifit3 (FIG. 21F). These results are consistent with a lineage-specific role for Ladr246 in repressing hematopoietic genes during HPC reprogramming.

Example 9 Knockdown Analysis of Ladr272 and Ladr43

Mouse Ladr 272 and Mouse Ladr 43 having orthologous sequences in the human genome as determined by liftOver analysis were analyzed in knockdown experiments. Specifically, differential expression analysis of significantly upregulated or downregulated genes in week 9 (Wk9) iPS cells were made deficient for the Ladr272 or Ladr43 using siLadr272 and siLadr43, as indicated in FIGS. 22A and 22B, respectively. Gene expression was determined by population level RNA-seq as described herein, and gene ontology (GO) analysis for significantly enriched GO terms in downregulated genes. Bonferroni-corrected P-values are shown in FIGS. 22A and 22B. Individually labeled points are a common set of genes downregulated in both Ladr 272 and Ladr43 loss-of-function experiments.

Example 10

FIG. 23 shows a graph of human lncRNAs that are significantly upregulated or downregulated during reprogramming of human primary skin fibroblasts into induced pluripotent stem (IPS) cells. The upregulation or downregulation of genes in the human fibroblasts and the human IPS cells was determined by population RNA-seq (GEO accession #:GSE41716).

Materials and Methods Example 11 iPS Cell Reprogramming

Tail-tip fibroblast (TTF) cultures were established from 3-8 day old reprogrammable mice homozygous for both the tet-inducible OSKM polycistronic cassette and the ROSA26-M2rtTA allele (Carey, B. W. et al., 2010, supra). Maintenance of animals and tail tip excision were performed according to a mouse protocol approved by the Caltech Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). TTFs (+doxycycline), iPS cells, and ES cells were cultured in ES medium (DMEM, 15% FBS, sodium bicarbonate, HEPES, nonessential amino acids, penicillin-streptomycin, L-glutamine, b-mercaptoethanol, 1000 U/ml LIF) and grown on 6-well plates coated with 0.1% gelatin and irradiated MEF feeder cells (GlobalStem). For “2i” conditions, iPS cells were grown in ESGRO-2i medium (Millipore). For lncRNA loss-of-function, iPS cells were transfected with siRNAs (IDT) using Lipofectamine RNAiMAX (Life). For SSEA-1 detection, StainAlive SSEA-1 DyLight 488 antibody (Stemgent) was used to detect SSEA-1 positive cells at specified time-points during reprogramming, which were isolated using flow cytometry on an iCyt Mission Technology Reflection Cell Sorter inside a Baker Bioguard III biosafety cabinet.

Example 12 Single-Cell and Bulk Sample cDNA Synthesis and Amplification

cDNA synthesis was performed using the Smart-Seq protocol as previously described (Ramskold et al., 2012, supra). Specifically, the SMARTer Ultra Low RNA kit for Illumina sequencing (Clontech) was used to generate and amplify cDNA from single cells isolated using a micromanipulator or from bulk samples. Intact single cells were deposited directly into hypotonic lysis buffer. Poly(A)+RNA was reverse transcribed through oligo dT priming to generate full-length cDNA, which was then amplified using 20-22 cycles. cDNA length distribution was assessed using High Sensitivity DNA kits on a Bioanalyzer (Agilent), and only samples showing a broad length distribution peak centered at 2 kb were subsequently used for library generation.

Example 13 Single-Cell and Bulk Sample RNA-Seq Library Generation and Sequencing

Single-cell and bulk sample RNA-seq libraries were constructed using the Nextera DNA Sample Prep kit (Illumina). Briefly, cDNA was ‘tagmentated’ at 55° C. with Nextera transposase, and tagmented DNA was purified using Agencourt AMPure XP beads (Beckman Coulter). Purified DNA was amplified using 5 cycles of Nextera PCR, and library quality was assessed using High Sensitivity DNA kits on a Bioanalyzer (Agilent). Libraries were sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq2000. Single-end reads of 50 bp or 100 bp length were obtained.

Example 14 Read Mapping and Analysis

All reads were trimmed down to 50 bp (if necessary) and mapped to the mouse genome (version mm9) with TopHat (Trapnell, C. et al., 2009, Bioinformatics 25, 1105-1111, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) (version 1.2.1) while supplying splice junctions annotated in the ENSEMBL63 set of transcript models. RPKMs for the ENSEMBL63 annotation were obtained using Cufflinks (Trapnell, C. et al., 2010, Nat Biotechnol 28, 511-515, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) (version 1.0.3) with otherwise default settings. For downstream analysis, the biotype classification of genes and transcripts in the ENSEMBL annotation was used to identify noncoding genes. Hierarchical clustering was carried out using Cluster 3.0 (de Hoon, M. J. et al., 2004, Bioinformatics 20, 1453-1454, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) and visualized using Java Treeview (Saldanha, A. J., 2004, Bioinformatics 20, 3246-3248, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). For differential expression analysis, reads were aligned against the refSeq mouse transcriptome using Bowtie version 0.12.7 (Langmead, B. et al., 2009, Genome Biol 10, R25, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Expression levels were then estimated using eXpress (Roberts, A. et al., 2013, Nat Methods 10, 71-73, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) (version 1.3.0), with gene-level effective counts and RPKM values derived from the sum of the corresponding values for all isoforms of a gene. The effective count values were then used as input to DESeq (Anders, S. et al., 2010, Genome Biol 11, R106, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) to assess differential expression. LncRNA transposon enrichment/depletion analysis was performed as previously described (Kelley, 2012, supra). For ChIP-seq analysis, sequencing data were downloaded from accession numbers GSM307140, GSM623989, GSM307137, GSM307138, E-MTAB-1600, GSM307155, and GSM623991. Reads were extracted using the fastq-dump program in the SRA ToolKit and mapped to the mm9 version of the mouse genome using Bowtie 0.12.7 with the following settings: “-v 2 -k 2 -m 1 -t --best --strata”, i.e. retaining only unique reads and allowing for up to 2 mismatches in a read. Enriched regions were called using ERANGE 3.2 (Johnson, D. S. et al., 2007, Science 316, 1497-1502, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) with the following settings: “-minimum 2 -ratio 3 -shift learn -revbackground”.

Example 15 Small RNA Sequencing and Analysis

Oxidation and beta-elimination of small RNAs were performed as previously described (Ameres, S. L. et al., 2010, Science 328, 1534-1539, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). The Illumina-compatible NEBNext Small RNA Sample Prep Set 1 (New England Biolabs) was used to prepare small RNA libraries for sequencing on the Illumina platform. Sequencing adapters were removed from reads by finding the 3′-most complete match to the adapter sequence and trimming the read after that position. The resulting were first mapped to the collection of ribosomal repeats (annotated using the RepeatMasker file downloaded from the UCSC genome browser), snoRNAs and snRNAs in the mouse genome (version mm9) using Bowtie version 0.12.7 in order to remove common contaminant reads. The unmapped reads from this filtering step were then aligned against the mm9 genome to determine the number of mappable reads. Both bowtie mapping steps were carried out with the following settings: ‘-v 0 -a -t --best --strata’, i.e. no mismatches and an unlimited number of locations to which a read could map to. Enrichment of repeat classes in sequencing was estimated by calculating RPM (Reads Per Million mapped reads) scores for each individual repeat annotated in the UCSC RepeatMasker file, then summing over all the instances of each repeat class in order to derive a total repeat class RPM score.

Example 16 Single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH)

smFISH was performed as previously described ((Raj et al., 2008, supra). Up to 48 DNA probes per target mRNA or lncRNA were synthesized and conjugated to Alexa fluorophore 488, 555, 594, or 647 (Life Technologies) and then purified by HPLC. Cells were trypsinized, fixed in 4% Formaldehyde, and permeabilized in 70% ethanol overnight. Cells were then hybridized with probe overnight at 30° C., in 20% Formamide, 2×SSC, 0.1 g/ml Dextran Sulfate, 1 mg/ml E. coli tRNA, 2 mM Vanadyl ribonucleoside complex, 0.1% Tween 20 in nuclease free water. Samples were washed twice in 20% Formamide, 2×SSC, and Tween 20 at 30° C., and then twice in 2×SSC+0.1% Tween at RT. 1 μl of hybridized cells was placed between #1 coverslips and flattened. Automated grid-based acquisition was performed on a Nikon Ti-E with Perfect Focus System, Semrock FISH filtersets, Lambda LS Xenona Arc Lamp, 60×1.4 NA oil objective, and Coolsnap HQ2 camera. Semi-automated dot detection and segmentation was performed using custom-built MATLAB software with a Laplacian-of-Gaussian Kernel, using Otsu's method to determine “dotness” threshold across all cells in the dataset.

Example 17 Self-Organizing Maps (SOM)

The 5000 genes with the greatest variance among the libraries were used for training a self-organizing map. Prior to SOM training, the data vectors were normalized on a gene-by-gene basis by subtracting each vector mean and dividing by its standard deviation. The SOM was constructed using the R package ‘kohonen.’ The total number of map units was set to the heuristic value 5*sqrt(N), where N is the number of data vectors. The map grid was initialized with the first two principal components of the data multiplied by a sinusoidal function to yield smooth toroidal boundary conditions. Training lasted 200 epochs (presentations of the data) during which the radius within which units were adapted toward the winning unit decreased linearly from h/8 to 2 units, where h is the map height (always chosen as the direction of largest length). Further analysis, including clustering and visualization, was performed with custom python code. Clusters were seeded by the local minima of the u-matrix, with a value for each unit defined as the average of the vector difference between that unit's prototype and its six neighbors on the hexagonal grid. All other unit prototypes were then assigned to clusters according to the minimum vector distance to a seed unit. The lists of clustered genes were submitted to the Princeton GO TermFinder (Boyle, E. I. et al., 2004, Bioinformatics 20, 3710-3715, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) server (http://go.princeton.edu) in order to determine enriched terms.

Example 18 lncRNA Analysis of Induced Pluripotent Stem (iPS) Cells

Raw RNA sequencing data were downloaded from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and analyzed for differential expression of lncRNAs during mouse hematopoietic progenitor cell (FIG. 21A) and human skin fibroblast (FIG. 23) reprogramming into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. The GEO accession number for FIG. 21A is GSE36290. The GEO accession number for FIG. 23 is GSE41716.

As disclosed throughout and as evidenced by, for example, FIGS. 15A, 15B, 16A-16F, 20A-20C, 21A-21F and 22A, 22B, and Tables 1-4, the disclosed lncRNAs participate in modulating pluripotency reprogramming and pluripotent cell differentiation, and may be utilized to enhance these cell fate methodologies.

While the present invention has been illustrated and described with reference to certain exemplary embodiments, those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that various modifications and changes may be made to the described embodiments without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of enhancing reprogramming of a somatic cell to a pluripotent cell in a human or mouse, comprising: upregulating in the somatic cell at least one long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) selected from SEQ ID NOs. 43, 272, 304, 334, 345, 395, and homologs thereof having at least 85% homology to the at least one lncRNA, the upregulating comprising adding or activating the at least one lncRNA.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the adding or activating comprises contacting the somatic cell with the at least one synthetic lncRNA and/or a vector encoding the at least one lncRNA.
 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising downregulating in the somatic cell at least one lncRNA selected from SEQ ID NOs. 361, 408, 414, 415, 418, 419, and homologs thereof having at least 85% homology to the at least one lncRNA, the downregulating comprising contacting the somatic cell with antisense oligonucleotides and/or interfering RNA (RNAi) targeting the at least one lncRNA.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the somatic cell is human and the upregulating of the at least one lncRNA comprises upregulating lncRNAs selected from SEQ ID NOs. 334, 345, 395, and the homologs thereof having at least 85% homology to the at least one lncRNA, and the downregulating of the at least one lncRNA comprises contacting the somatic cell with antisense oligonucleotides and/or interfering RNAi targeting the at least one lncRNA selected from SEQ ID NOs. 361, 408, 414, and the homologs thereof having at least 85% homology to the at least one lncRNA.
 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising expressing Oct 4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc transcription factors in the somatic cell.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the homologs have at least 90% homology.
 7. A method of enhancing differentiation of a cell in a pluripotent state in a human or mouse, comprising: downregulating in the cell at least one long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) selected from SEQ ID NOs. 272, 304, 334, 395, and homologs thereof having at least 85% homology to the at least one lncRNA, the downregulating comprising contacting the cell with antisense oligonucleotides and/or interfering RNA (RNAi) targeting the at least one lncRNA.
 8. The method of claim 7, further comprising upregulating at least one lncRNA selected from SEQ ID NOs. 361, 408, 414, 415, 418, 419, and homologs thereof having at least 85% homology to the at least one lncRNA, the upregulating comprising adding or activating the at least one lncRNA. 